The proportion of mothers in the workforce has increased over the past 40 years. Examination of factors associated with a working/student mother’s milk expression is needed to provide effective lactation support. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of maternal assets in the relationships between the theory constructs, intention, and behavior of breast milk expression. Using a cross-sectional design framed under the theory of planned behavior, all female personnel associated with a higher education institute in northern New Jersey were invited to participate in the online survey, Milk Expression on Campus. Attitude toward breast milk expression, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention, and behavior of breast milk expression on campus as well as maternal assets such as income, education, living status, and campus role were measured. Maternal assets had no moderation role but showed a significant and meaningful mediation effect on the relationship between perceived behavioral control and the intention to express breast milk on campus, with effect size R2=3.59%, 95% CI (-.1061, -.0047). There was no mediation effect of the asset on the relationship between intention and the behavior of breast milk expression, 95% CI (-.0984, .0232). Future breastfeeding support and promotion may direct its attention to provide systematic social and clinical support to enhance working/student maternal assets, e.g. family education, access to lactation services, or peer-based support programs, thereby helping mothers achieve their breastfeeding goals. Show less

Background Pump-dependent milk expression frequently occurs in environments that lack the sensory and emotional cues associated with direct breastfeeding, which may interfere with relaxation and milk let-down. Emerging digital technologies such as augmented reality (AR) may help recreate visual and emotional cues that support the physiological processes associated with milk expression. Objective This study examined whether AR technology may reduce stress, enhance maternal satisfaction, and influence emotional and physiological experiences associated with breast pumping. Methods This mixed-methods study examined whether an immersive AR environment influenced maternal experience, attentional focus, and physiological responses during breast pumping. Secondary quantitative data were analyzed from the parent iPUMP randomized two-sequence repeated measures pilot study, which compared pumping sessions using a tablet-based visual condition and an AR environment. Quantitative measures included heart rate, blood pressure, and perceived stress. Qualitative data were collected through follow-up semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants who completed the parent study. Results Quantitative findings indicated modest and variable differences in physiological measures across conditions. However, qualitative findings revealed meaningful experiential differences. In addition to expressing increased emotional engagement, perceived maternal support during pumping, improved focus, and increased support for milk let-down, participants consistently described AR as more immersive and less distracting. Conclusions These findings suggest that immersive visual technologies may influence the attentional and emotional context of pumping rather than directly increasing milk output. By reducing environmental distractions and promoting focused engagement with infant imagery, AR environments may help create conditions that support the neuroendocrine processes associated with milk ejection. Future research with larger samples and longer intervention periods is needed to examine whether immersive technologies can support sustained pumping engagement and longer-term breastfeeding outcomes. Show less